10 Facts on Orientalism in the 19th Century Art for a Presentation

10 Facts on Orientalism in the 19th Century Art for a Presentation To fully understand how and why the facts to be presented in the following paragraphs will be useful to anyone working on a presentation on art in the 19th century, a brief discussion on orientalism and what it entails is necessary. Orientalism refers to the orient or east as well as every concept that comes from the east. Similarly, Orientalism in 19th century art takes into consideration the effects eastern cultures located in the Middle East and North Africa had on 19th century art and the movement it inspired. So here are 10 facts on the orientalism wave that swept the West during the 19th century. The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte was largely responsible for Europes interest in all things oriental. The invasion which lasted till 1801 led to the inclusion of oriental culture in the art, literature and music scenes in Europe. The book Description de lEgypte, which was published in 1809 through 1822 consisted of four volumes describing Egyptian culture, topography, architecture and population was considered the most influential authority on oriental culture in the 19th century. It served as a major inspiration to French artists,   architects and decorators of the 19th century and its influence could be seen as part of the architecture and art of 19th century France. European artist’s depiction of violence in the orients were fabricated and inspired by the need for propaganda to enforce the Wests sense of superiority over the oriental way of life. The famous works of Eugene Delacroix were created basically to promote the stereotype of Arabs and Muslim men as savages hell-bent on tormenting Christians and destroying the western way of life. Delacroixs famous works The Massacre of Chios and the Death of Sardanapalus were painted without the artist ever visiting the Near East.   His works were based on newspaper clippings, shady eyewitness reports and romantic literature. In the 19th century, even supporters of Eugene Delacroixs work criticized the accuracy of his art by stating that his images were simply derived from pictures of the plague and the Paris mob. European Artists had no access to the women of the orient. In the 19th century, Muslim women lived privately and could not be accessed by men who were not relations or husbands without the men risking injury to their person. Famous 19th century artists such as Jean-Leon George, Jean-Auguste Ingres, Delacroix and Theodore Chasse Riau had based their famous painting of oriental women on hearsay and in some cases French models. Jean-Auguste Ingres popular series of paintings depicting Odalisque, the eastern concubine of a Turkish Sultan was actually the painting of a French model named Madame Felix. Photographic images of the orients were tampered with. The advent of photography in early 1800, and the corresponding advances made by scientists in capturing real-life images had little or no effect to the modes of capturing oriental culture. Ironically some images of the orients were taking but in most cases, photographers preferred to stage scenes rather than capture the reality of the East. According to photography scholar Nissan Perez, photographers chose to stage scenes so as to reinforce the Wests myopic view of the orients. Orientalist art was hugely popular in the 19th century. All over Europe France, Britain, Italy etc. the fascination with the East led to the formation of art groups that placed their focus on explaining oriental culture through art. In 19th century France, 1893 to be precise, the Society of Orientalist Painters was founded and its honorary leader was Jean-Leon Gerome who visited Morocco just once but painted images of Turkey and Western Asia and claimed they were factual. On Jean-Leon Geromes only visit to Morocco, he wrote about his disillusionment with the fact that the subject matters of his paintings were not the reality on ground. The orients spurred a new wave of romanticism in art. The romantic era of European art was largely influenced by imaginations and stories of the orients. Although orientalism in art was looked down upon in the 19th century, the Romanization of oriental subject matters fascinated millions. A large percent of the famous painters and artists of the 19th century based their work and made their names from creating eastern inspired art. Oriental art circa 1760s focused on the landscape and architecture of the East. It was in later years of the 19th century that artists became enamored with representing oriental culture in art. Orientalist painters made up the harems. Eroticism and the false idea that women from the orients were erotic by Western males created a whole genre of exotic art in the 19th century. According to Ruth Bernard Yeazell, the depictions of Eastern harems were based off western male fantasies and stories on what an oriental harem should look like. Foreign male painters were not allowed into the seraglios but relied on stories from other women as inspiration. Unlike oriental art depictions, harems were more familial than erotic. What western painters termed as harems, were actually family centers and places for social gathering for women. Richard Francis Burton toured Mecca in El-Madina and he reports a more family oriented arrangement were wives stayed separately from husbands instead of the western version of harems. While western women saw harems as places of social gathering, Western males who had happened to form the majority of the painters viewed harems as a sexual place regardless of the facts. Factual representation of life in the orients exists. In the arts of the 19th century, some artist stuck to reality and produced realistic depictions of the East. Some famous examples are the Italian artist Ippolito Caffi, who actually lived in the East and produced original art on life in the orients. Another notable mention is Fausto Zonaro, an Italian artist who became the official Ottoman court painter. These artists including Gentile Bellini represented Middle-eastern women as reserved and demure unlike the majority of French oriental artists. Criticism of oriental art became widespread in the 20th century. The false nature of oriental life shown in 19th century paintings has been actively denounced by writers over the years. Edward Saids work Orientalism was influential in challenging the Wests perception of oriental culture and women as depicted in the popular artworks of the 19th century.Other notable critical works include Ruth Bernard Yeazell’ s Harems of the Mind: Passages of Western Art and Literature and Howes Orientalism in French 19th Century. References: Suren, L. (2010). Photography, Vision and Production of Modern Bodies, 70-80. Irwin, R. (2006).  Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents Princeton Archeology Journal, Global and Views: Nineteenth Century Travel Photographs. http://web.princeton.edu/sites/Archaeology/rp/globalviews/gv1.html Jiman, M. (2009). Representation of Middle-Eastern Women in Orientalist Paintings in Nineteenth Century: A Comparison of French and Italian Orientalists. https://theskinnyjeanrant.com/2014/05/01/representation-of-middle-eastern-women-in-orientalist-paintings-in-nineteenth-century-a-comparison-of-french-and-italian-orientalists/ Alexandra, J. (2009). Orientalism in French Nineteenth Century Art: The Enigma of the East. http://bestamericanart.blogspot.com.ng/2014/05/orientalism-in-french-nineteenth.html?m=1 Nancy, D. (2008). The Origins of Orientalism. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-modern/intro-becoming-modern/a/orientalism Thomson, G. (2008). The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences: Orientalism. encyclopedia.com/topic/Orientalism.aspx

Impacts of McLaren Technology Centre Essay

Impacts of McLaren Technology Centre Essay Impacts of McLaren Technology Centre Essay Example Impacts of McLaren Technology Centre Essay Example As any practical discipline, architecture develops on a day-to-day basis since it is expected to serve the best interests of people. It is an indisputable fact that architecture succeeds in that to various extents. The outcomes of any high-scale project become a central object of intensive discussions in a narrow circle of experts as well as in the public masses. Strong controversies usually occur on the basis of discussion of the trends related to the architecture. In such a way, a style of deconstructivism occurs to be a frequent subject of arguments regarding its applicability to a contemporary practice of architecture. At the same time, the issues of sustainability, especially environmental, are also important for the establishment of deconstructivism as a complete independent style in architecture. However, its environmental impacts should be verified. Therefore, McLaren Technology Centre is a perfect example of deconstructivism. Its influence on the environment is commonly reco gnized as rather vague because of its morpho-ecological features which is why the following paper focuses on the discussion of that perspective. The Perfect Example of Deconstructivism The following study does not provide any findings regarding the subject but gives an account on the most important components of sustainable architecture and compliance of deconstructivism with its basic guidelines. The paper presents multiple points of view so that the results of this argumentative paper can be considered objective. Social, economic, and environmental sustainability are discussed in terms of McLaren Technology Centre’s features of deconstructivism. In other words, these three pillars of the sustainability are the main metrics of McLaren Technology Centre’s effectiveness. The paper does not discuss overall efficiency of McLaren Technology Centre but places the emphasis on the environmental impacts of the building. Morpho-ecological elements are a specific aspect of McLaren Technology Centre so that the majority of relations are compared with its relevance to solution-thinking. Discussion To discuss the morpho-ecological impacts of McLaren Technology Centre on the environment, the overall characteristics of deconstructivism should be indicated. McLaren Technology Centre presents a result of architectural harmony and unity that render an obvious stability visually as well as practically. The building may seem to demonstrate a drastic dislocation between its design and context. However, it is certainly not true as McLaren Technology Centre repeats the form of the land, into which it is cut. Along with internal peculiarities of the building, exterior renders a message about high technologies and creativity that are not limited to traditional linear approaches . Deconstructivism may impress with its chaotic solutions of material, design, and addressing surrounding context, but none of these decisions are made for a purpose of just entertaining the publicity. McLaren Technology Centre attempts to deliver the message that cutting-edge technologies are not placed in any fram eworks and can exist in harmony with the environment. As a building of deconstructivism, McLaren Technology Centre is definitely a new paradigm in architecture. However, that paradigm hardly fits the usual contexts and environments so that its efficiency can be argued. Mindful of the impacts produced on the environment is rather questionable since many concerned experts perceive the paradigm as strictly destructive because of its rejection of the entire past experience of architecture, without placing new feasible ideas for a contemporary philosophy of architecture . McLaren Technology Centre as well as any other product of deconstructivism architecture is seen as purposeful aggression on the human environments and senses. Hence, construction of such building is initially abusive to the environment as it generates anxiety and discomfort. As a consequence, a subject of sustainable architecture is far beyond the terms of discussion because the building does not address basic aspects of comfort and suitability. Thus, the new paradigm of de constructivism makes many experts feel concerned. In spite of the complexity that is perceived as accidental, McLaren Technology Centre contains a variety of functions. According to the pioneer of deconstructivism, Frank Gehry, chance collision in the exterior and interior serve the purpose of providing more space where it is necessary. In such a way, McLaren Technology Centre provides enough space for each department in accordance with their technical functions. Traditional approach to planning the building presupposes symmetric borders for a certain segment so that spacing becomes less flexible . The plan of McLaren Technology Centre suggests that some additional space can be always gained. Obviously, that makes a positive impact on the environment as the building harmonically follows the pattern of the land; equipment, cars, and etc. do not obtain external space around McLaren Technology Centre. Therefore, visually chaotic design of the building pursues the goal to provide more internal space for the Technology Centre. By the same token, a variety of materials and purposes of their use were involved in the erection of McLaren Technology Centre. A plain combination of metal, concrete, and glass present an efficient reflector of solar radiation so that the roof and basic walls reflect excessive sunlight while the building is heated sufficiently inside . The expenditures on costs may seem to be not justified, but long term environmental impacts are worth investing in such deconstructivism projects. Such a combination of materials relates to modernism and postmodernism, which are focused on rendering messages of high technologies and urbanism. Thus, McLaren Technology Centre redefines this aspect since its environmental perspective correlates with a message of modernity and progress. That image can be embedded in the concept of deconstructivism in the nearest future in case the paradigm is accepted by the community of top architects and the society as a whole since deconstructivism influences the publi city to a distinct extent. In fact, this influence is believed to be mainly negative. McLaren Technology Centre is also perceived as shocking so that many people consider its design to be aimed at scandalizing the brand of McLaren . More pragmatic viewers admit that deconstructivism hardly responds the environment because of its chaotic planning which is why McLaren Technology Centre is a certain mistake of the brand’s owners. Technology does not have to necessarily follow complicated patterns and shocking designs. The main purpose of high technologies is to make the life of people less complicated and more comfortable. McLaren Technology Centre looks definitely awe-inspiring, but it does not render justified effectiveness, especially from the perspective of environmental sustainability . Radical solutions need to be justified by the outcomes so that advantages of McLaren Technology Centre are not explicit to the publicity even though the brand owners claim that the building considers up-to-date green t echnologies. Even though McLaren Technology Centre really does not produce any positive environmental impact, its technology and design address the current social trend. The building does not look outdated and average. These features reflect the global striving for uniqueness and modernity so that McLaren Technology Centre is definitely an object for public view. Artistically, such aggressive design complies with the contemporary social processes. The entire century can be marked as a period of extreme violence and aggression which is why magnified and chaotically placed buildings create an environment, in which society keeps itself in a strict discipline . Henceforth, perception of violence as dislocation, disjuncture, and discontinuity is reflected by McLaren Technology Centre. That makes people not to take aggression for granted as there is an excessive portion of that within the community. For this reason, McLaren Technology Centre reflects the context of social processes but does not support it since its technological capacity is aimed at more productive outcomes. In regard to the subject of traditional practice in the architecture, a certain deviation from standards can be observed in McLaren Technology Centre. The problem is not based on the originality of design and incorporated technologies but on a disregard of past experience . This factor is relatively strong as long as architecture belongs to a sort of disciplines, which make a progress on the basis of the past experience . Thus, denial of previously valued traditions makes McLaren Technology Centre unoriginal. Traditional architecture presupposes buildings to be symmetrical. As long as McLaren Technology Centre does not follow a linear pattern, it does not deliver a message of stability. Absence of equal elements leads to absence of balance in technology, facilities, and storage. For this reason, deconstructivism of McLaren Technology Centre has to advance in many aspects as its efficiency is redundant. In addition, McLaren Technology Centre does not comply with basic logical standards of architecture. The curved form of the building is not typical of technical center as it does not imply a systematized division of space within it. McLaren Technology Centre contains more negations of logical solutions rather than optimized approaches to spacing. This factor is a central concern with respect to applicability of deconstructivism to a contemporary architecture because even a late modernism includes a distinct compliance with symmetrical interiors. Further, McLaren Technology Centre cannot render sustainability to a meaningful extent. This can be explained by the evidence of its saving capacity. McLaren Technology Centre obtains more space than it could have been which is why a subject of economizing on energy, wastes, and etc. is far from embodiment in the empirical environment. These arguments are sufficient for claiming McLaren Technology Centre to produce negative effects on the env ironment, but specific morphologic details should be reviewed. McLaren Technology Centre is designed for housing more than 18, 000 employees of the company which is why such a form was chosen . In fact, the building is divided into multiple segments that belong to specific departments. As a consequence, the access to any department is equal. There is no need to pass throughout all sections in order to enter the last one (Appendix 1). McLaren Technology Centre is completed by a lake so that this complex creates an integral circular system. Hence, McLaren Technology Centre fits the environment naturally. The lake is utilized for additional cooling of the building while McLaren Technology Centre covers it from excessive solar radiation. It is becoming increasingly apparent that McLaren Technology Centre is designed for purposes of the environmental sustainability since its architectural solutions address problems of greenhouse effect. However, this advancement is not a single advantage of McLaren Technology Centre’s design. McLaren Technology Centre is constructed on an in-situ concrete slab so that it is cut into a deep ground of the land, which keeps the height of the buildings below a restricted depth. The building is surrounded by 100, 000 specially planted trees and ornamental shrubs. Conversely, McLaren Technology Centre creates favorable conditions for growing new trees. In combination with the lake, a new biodiversity is created in the area . In such a way, curved and semi-circled design of McLaren Technology Centre causes a growth of biologic population. To the contrary of the assumption that deconstructivism is a dramatically destructive paradigm of architecture, environmentally favorable design of McLaren Technology Centre should be admitted. It is hard to argue with the fact that exterior design of the building is completed in terms of the latest modernism while its internal peculiarities occur to address issues of the environmental sustainability. Still, McLaren Technology Centre is reported to contradict the issues of sustainability as long as deconstructivism cannot address environmental problems in terms of relationship between technology and form. Deconstructivism is claimed to ignore solution-thinking concerns of sustainable architecture which is why such buildings as McLaren Technology Centre cannot provide sufficient environmental support . A sustainable building is expected to take solution-based thinking as a determining constraint that influences the ultimate form of a building. McLaren Technology Centre seems to be aimed to address the environmental issues initially so that the design constraint was primary at the early stages. As a result, inappropriately formulated balancing of design and incorporated solutions created a vague environmental advantage and questionable design as effectiveness of curves and semi-circled constructions can be argued. Stated differently, ultimate design form has to be determined by a co nstraint of solutions otherwise the relation between the design and sustainable solutions cannot be established. In contrast, sustainability is not a sign of a particular style . McLaren Technology Centre addresses environmental problems in spite of its deconstructivism. In addition, deconstructivism of the buildings renders its sustainability. The concrete slab is cut into the land in a way that repeats its pattern. Similarly, the curved form of McLaren Technology Centre does not change the form of the hill’s top so that its environment is not harmed. Furthermore, McLaren Technology Centre utilizes the environment for mutual support. The concrete slab makes the ground more resistant to rains and underground fluids so that trees and plants are not exceedingly flooded. McLaren Technology Centre naturally fits a local biodiversity, especially the area of the lake as the building stimulates the lake’s heating and steam production. Sspecially planted trees not only neutralize the emissions of carbon dioxide but also generate more oxygen because of sufficient internal fluids from the l ake. In fact, the main advantage of constructivism is based on its diverse features. To be more specific, chaotic design presupposes a wide range of solutions for any architectural purposes. McLaren Technology Centre uses this capacity to a sufficient extent which is why technological perspective of the building is well-justified. Thus, McLaren Technology Centre is able to implement numerous green solutions even now as long as it is design is relatively flexible . Deconstructivism implies a random relation between design and solutions. This tendency can be explained by a relation of deconstructivism to functionalism and green postmodernism . Since McLaren Technology Centre includes elements of both styles, sustainable technologies are a compulsory part of the building’s design. To the greatest extent, the building was built with green solutions a priori, without an intentional purpose of addressing the environmental issues. Unintentional sustainable solutions are regarded as top gr een technologies in the architecture because there has been a little agreement on the balance between environmentally friendly solutions and design. On the other hand, McLaren Technology Centre is complex with inherent power inefficiency so that it is mainly perceived as an object for a public view rather than an up-to-date product of high technologies . The building occurs to be ineffective in multiple cases even though it addresses certain aspects of sustainability. The Sspecific morpho-ecology of McLaren Technology Centre does not have to address one issue while the other one is dramatically harmed . In such a way, McLaren Technology Centre provides growth of a local biodiversity while extents of its power consumption leave much to be desired. The building attempts to comply with a status of high-profile public architecture rather than environmentally-friendly solution. Social sustainability is surely gained as a sufficient workplace as well as employment is provided while the environmental issue has been raged unabated yet. Overall, McLaren Technology Centre is socially trendy. It reflects a social tendency of modernity and uniqueness which is why the building’s chaotic and curved elements of design are regarded as a fashion trend in the world culture. Hence, social sustainability is addressed throughout its exterior because McLaren Technology Centre definitely contributes to the progress of the world architecture. It can be argued that its inefficiencies overweigh the advantages, but McLaren Technology Centre is obviously progressive from the artistic point of view . Therefore, a major cultural contribution is evident. However, haphazard planning of incorporated elements of design are always attached to specific functions . For this reason, economic sustainability is addressed to a certain extent. These advantages of deconstructivism epitomize the style, and McLaren Technology Centre belongs to a group of buildings, which will demonstrate its full range of capacities in the nearest future. That is to mention, the framework of sustainable architecture only begins to formulate its basic constraints while social tendencies are changing with a proactive intensity. Eventually, the last argument should be outlined to the contrary of McLaren Technology Centre’s value to the society and economy. In spite of the numerous facts of sustainable orientation of the building, McLaren Technology Centre contains a little space for addressing issues related to production and testing of sport cars. Without a doubt, this industry is especially harmful to the environment as emissions carbon dioxide along with the other waste of automotive production result in the pollution of the environment. McLaren Technology Centre leaves this aspect mainly unaddressed. The main problem of the building is based on the fact that it lacks green solutions internally while external elements such as the lake and surrounding trees are indirect components of the complex system . Consequently, elements of deconstructivism are not always favorable for gaining environmental sustainability. The paper has focused on the discussion of McLaren Technology Centre’ morpho-ecological influence on the environment. The paper has covered various points of view regarding the phenomenon of deconstructivism and McLaren Technology Centre as its distinct representative. The discussion has included various arguments which is why the paper presents only an objective academic opinion, without contributing much to the findings in the related discipline. At the same time, the paper has discussed such essential aspects as environmental, social, and economic sustainability of McLaren Technology Centre. However, these perspectives revolve around the controversy regarding exterior design and distinct green solutions of the building. As it has become increasingly apparent, McLaren Technology Centre renders a little support of the environmental sustainability in comparison with social and economic pillars . The paper has shed light on the peculiarities of deconstructivism. Even though thi s style origins from late postmodernism and functionalism, attachment of design to particular solutions remains symbolic while a philosophy of exterior design prevails in McLaren Technology Centre. It is appropriate to make a general comment on the fact that deconstructivism itself is not environmentally harmful even though rectilinear and curved elements are recognized as aggressive for a human perception. The matter of McLaren Technology Centre’s problem relates to the fact that practice of environmentally sustainable solutions is not sufficiently credible for implementation on a regular basis. Green architecture already has a certain history of development, but it does not suggest any vivid framework. For this reason, McLaren Technology Centre should not be regarded as an environmentally harmful building. To be more precise, the building does not render expected advances in establishment of sustainable environment. As a matter of fact, this objective is not feasible for McLaren Technology Centre at least in its current mode of technological solutions that can be enhanced in the future.

Business research methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Business research methods - Essay Example Research Process essentially involves several important stages such as preliminary steps, problem definition, management dilemma, primary or secondary data collection, literature reviewing, data analysis, presentation of findings and problem solution etc Out of these research process stages, the problem definition stage is perhaps most important one as effectiveness and successful completion of all other stages are largely depending on problem definition stage. Some of the stages in the research process are more critical than others. For instance, problem definition is most important step because it determines how to set the direction for the remainder of the steps that follow (Neelankavil, 2007, p. 57). The problem to be solved in a research or the issue to be identified must be clearly defined so that more appropriate solution to the same problem can be developed and this illustrates why problem definition stage is more important in the research process. What is Problem Definition and Why it is Important? Sekaran (2003, p. 70) defined Problem Definition, or often termed as Problem Statement, as a clear, precise and succinct statement or description of the question or issue that the organization need to investigate with the goal of finding an answer or solution to the same problem.... in to different functional areas in the organization such as sales, purchase, profit, inventory handling etc can be successfully done only if the problem is clearly defined. Malhotra (2008, p. 38) emphasized that problem definition in research process is the most important step because it involves stating the general problems and identifying various components of the research itself. If problem is clearly defined, significant components that can be made use in the research also can be identified. Therefore, it is very clear that the research can be well-designed and conducted properly only if the basic research question is properly defined. As Malhotra (2008, p. 38) noted, none in all the tasks involved in a research project is more vital to the ultimate fulfillment of a client’s needs and requirements than a proper problem definition. Time, efforts and money spent on any research process can be a mere waste if the problem is ill-defined. An example can illustrate how importan t is problem definition in a research process. An organization that experiences less- morale among its employees may need to investigate why its people are less morale and how it can be resolved. In order to investigate this issue, the problem should be clearly defined. If the researcher defined the problem as less efficiency among the employees, or less productivity among the workers or decreased commitment among managers, the problem is not clearly defined and the solution the research may bring would be of no use to the organization. Following are some of the main reasons why problem definition is more important than solution and any other steps in a research. A well defined problem helps the researcher plan all other research steps to be conducted properly, All other steps like data

Tourism Management Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Tourism Management Assignment - Essay Example This paper looks at current performance of the Eiffel Tower as a tourist destination. The first part will give basic information and a brief review of visits. As this paper aims to look at how Eiffel Tower fares as a tourist destination, it will utilize analytical methods to justify and strengthen the assessment. After the analysis on the operation of Eiffel Tower, the paper will give recommendations and possible measures that can be undertaken to increase tourist arrivals and receipts. Also, it will offer suggestions on how to further maximize the utility gained by travelers when visiting Eiffel Tower. These recommendations will of course, lay on the future prospects which will also be identified in this paper. The Eiffel Tower is a famous tourist attraction not only in France but in the entire world. This structure is a symbol of the innovative technology which is already existent at the end of the 19th century. Postcards sent from France usually carry an image of the tower, indicating the popularity of this massive structure. Eiffel Tower, being the top attraction in Paris records approximately 6 million visitors annually (The Structure of Eiffel Tower and Its Evolution 2006). The Eiffel Tower was built for the International Exhibition of Paris of 1889 to celebrate and commemorate the centenary of the French Revolution. The design of the Eiffel Tower came from Gustave Eiffel, who won among the 700 proposals submitted in a design competition. After its construction, the tower was officially opened by the Prince of Wales King Edward VII of England. The establishment of the tower in 1889 marked the completion of the world's tallest (300 meters) building until 1930. At first, the building of the tower was met with resistance as people consider it as an eyesore. Now, this proves to be wrong as it draws a lot of tourists and income to France. There are a lot of amazing facts which attracts tourists to this particular establishment. For one, the tower's height varies according to the temperature. This is due to the fact that the metal used in building the Eiffel Tower expands as temperature rises. Thus, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 8cm (3.25 inches). The Eiffel tower is being repainted every seven years to protect the structure from rust. Tourists are given a chance to take part in choosing what color the tower will be by a poll. Tourists can explore the three levels of the structure to totally appreciate the beauty of the Eiffel Tower. The ground floor is consists of the massive hydraulic elevator machinery which has been used since 1899, change office and the Paris Tourist Office. Meanwhile, tourists can stroll and relax at the first floor where anyone can have a glimpse of the tower's recent and past history. The first floor also houses a section of the spiral staircase, the original hydraulic pump, a FerOscope, Observatory of Tower Top Movement, the panoramic indicators, historical panels, Cineffeil, exhibitions of the tower, souvenir shop, snack bar, "PARIS-TOUR EFFIEL" Post Office and internet stations and phone booths. Altitude 95, one of the only two restaurants in the tower can also be visited in the first floor. The second floor offers a 360 view of the whole city of Paris. This is the perfect spot to make a photographic study of the city. Like the first floor, this level

19th Century United States Presidential Elections Essay

19th Century United States Presidential Elections - Essay Example Hence, each party nominated a second contender: Aaron Burr for the Democratic-Republicans and Charles Pickney for the Federalists. There are numerous issues considered by the electorate in 1800 which resulted in its unusual outcomes. The popularity of John Adams had declined after his alleged inefficient management of foreign policy. Hence, it was obvious from the start that Jefferson would defeat him. The Democratic-Republicans, after the votes were counted, had emerged victorious. However, the impossible had occurred. A deadlock resulted between Jefferson and Burr. So, the Congress had voted. Still, Jefferson won the presidential seat. The 1808 United States presidential election had three candidates, namely, Federalist Charles C. Pinckney, Democratic-Republican George Clinton, and Democratic-Republican James Madison. James Madison was an advocate of a powerful central government. Having been the loyal secretary of state of Jefferson, Madison gained firm support from the Republicans in 1808. Hence, James Madison defeated Charles Pinckney, who was, in contrast to Madison, a failed Federalist contender in the 1804 election. George Clinton, the incumbent Vice President, was also a contender for the presidential seat, acquiring votes from a Democratic-Republican Party’s division that rejected James Madison. ... In addition, this presidential election was unusual in the sense that the candidate garnering majority of the electoral votes did not win the presidential seat. It is also frequently regarded to be the first election where in the president failed to prevail over popular vote. Just then, a number of states did not perform a popular vote, permitting their state parliament to select the members of the electorate. The 1832 United States presidential election had four candidates, namely, Democratic Andrew Jackson, National Republican Henry Clay, Independent John Floyd, and Anti-Masonic William Wirt. Henry Clay discovered that National Republican support was mainly restricted to New England, Mid-Atlantic States, and his homeland Kentucky. He tried to strengthen his position by choosing a running mate who is an officer of the Bank of the United States. The sitting Jackson chose the trustworthy Martin Van Buren. The Anti-Masonic Party gained little consideration and interest, but was able to undermine Clay by taking several votes. The sweeping victory of Andrew Jackson in the 1832 election ended the existence of the Anti-Masonic and National-Republic parties. They would eventually be reconstructed and included in the development of the Whig Party. The 1836 United States presidential election had five candidates, namely, Democratic Martin Van Buren, Whig William Harrison, Whig Hugh White, and Whig Daniel Webster, and Independent W.P. Mangum. The subject matter of slavery in this election became foremost for the first time. Van Buren tried to make the North and South contented. The primary challenger of Van Buren was William Henry Harrison. The latter was a

The Ancient Concept Of Diplomatic Immunity And Relations Across Borders Law Essay

The Ancient Concept Of Diplomatic Immunity And Relations Across Borders Law Essay INTRODUCTION Diplomatic immunity is considered as an ancient concept concerning relations across borders. It even dates back to Ancient Greece and Rome. Today, it is a principle that has been codified into the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 and this regulates past customs and practices. Indeed, as the ICJ indicated in US v. Iran  [1]  , a large number of the provisions of the Convention reflect customary international law. Moreover, it was found that almost all disputes relating to diplomatic law could be resolved by referring to the Convention or the obligations contained in it. The term Diplomatic immunity and privileges connotes a form of legal immunity and a policy held between governments. This aims at ensuring that  diplomats  are safe in the host State and that they are not liable to  lawsuit  or  prosecution  under the laws of the receiving State. It is noteworthy to state that there is a distinction between an immunity and a privilege but these are known to have been used interchangeably  [2]  . Various authors like Morton, Stefko and Makowski have tried to distinguish between the meanings. Although each of them described the terms in his own words, they basically have a common denominator. Privileges can be defined as benefits or rights that other persons do not have while Immunities can be considered as exemptions from the jurisdiction of the law of the receiving State.  [3]   The traditional tasks of the diplomats can be summarised as follows: analytical assessment of the receiving State, protection of citizens of the sending State who are present in the host State and relation building between the two States. However, today, diplomats also deal with issues such as the promotion of trade, peacemaking, environmental concerns, nuclear weapons and drug abuse across borders amongst others. According to Brownlie, diplomacy exists to create and maintain communication between States so that objectives regarding commercial, political and legal activities can be pursued.  [4]  It can be argued that, today, instantaneous communication can be made via modern devices. Yet, long-distance communication can in no way rival the personal and confidential meetings between the representative of the sending State and the Government of the receiving State. As such, diplomats are granted some immunities and privileges to perform the tasks to which they are accredited efficiently.  [5]   Unfortunately, diplomats started overusing or abusing of the immunities and privileges they were benefitting from. Indeed, immunities ranging from personal immunity from jurisdiction to the inviolability of the diplomatic bag led to abuses of the protection afforded by the VCDR. Furthermore, since the staff and families of diplomatic officials also enjoy privileges and immunities, there were abuses by them also. Hence, members of diplomatic missions and their families are immune from local punishment and they seem to be above the local law. Although the VCDR provides remedies against diplomats, staff and families who commit abuses, it seems that these are not enough to suppress wrongdoings. Nevertheless, the receiving States are not left to their misfortune without remedies. Indeed, certain measures are provided for in the VCDR to hinder the condemnable acts of the diplomats such as the declaration that the diplomat is persona non grata. Additionally, various acts in the UK, the US and the Republic of South Africa will be analysed in order to show which measures were taken by a few Governments to try to curb diplomatic abuses. Without any doubt, the VCDR did not prepare for some eventualities and measures to deter the unwarranted acts by diplomats are lacking. Although it would be difficult to totally eliminate the abuses, measures can be taken to reduce them considerably. It is to be noted that only selected articles of the VCDR which deal with immunity, privileges and abuses will be dealt with in this dissertation. Moreover, for illustration and analysis purposes, some cases prior to 1961 will be used throughout the dissertation. This dissertation will firstly explore the history behind Diplomatic Relations and the theories which moulded diplomatic immunity and privileges (Chapter 1). Secondly, the different types of immunities and privileges granted to diplomats will be elaborated upon (Chapter 2). Next, abuses by diplomatic agents and their families will be dealt with (Chapter 3). Furthermore, an overview on existing measures to curb abuses will follow (Chapter 4). Finally, several suggestions have been put forward to hinder such abuses (Chapter 5). Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚  Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚  CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL ORIGIN AND SOURCES OF LAW OF DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY Modern Diplomatic Law was shaped by events and ideas since time immemorial. According to some authors  [6]  , diplomatic immunity existed since the era of cavemen -who would probably communicate with one another to draw the limits of their hunting grounds. This chapter will deal with the most important parts of the historical development of diplomatic relations (1.1). Then, the VCDR will be analysed (1.2). Eventually, an overview will follow on other important sources of Diplomatic Law (1.3). HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS There were many stages of development of diplomatic relations in the past (1.1.1). As from antiquity itself, modern forms of protection were given to envoys. It is found that diplomatic relations were also influenced by Natural Law from the 12th to the 17th century and positivist writers after the 17th century.  [7]  Finally, there were also theroies which shaped diplomatic immunity (1.1.2). DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS IN THE PAST The preamble of the VCDR states that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Recalling that peoples of all nations from ancient times have recognized the status of diplomatic agentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Building on this statement, it is affirmed that Diplomatic Immunity has undeniably been a facet of diplomatic relations for countless years. In fact, it is regarded as one of the oldest branches of International Law. Indeed, since time immemorial, envoys were selected and sent to forward messages, obtain replies and give report on news from receiving States. Necessity was a principle which forced most States to give diplomats protection, both within the host State and in States of transit.  [8]   In Antiquity, diplomatic immunity was regarded as a divine right. The main factors ensuring immunity and privileges were culture, language and religion. The ideas and customs of the Roman community concerning immunity have been categorically established and these created the foundation of modern practices. The earliest record of organised diplomatic law is found in Ancient Greece whereby the Greek Government gave special status to foreign representatives.  [9]   During the Renaissance, scholars and others laid emphasis on the idea that Natural Law gave a strong argument for the protection of envoys during their official functions.  [10]  The most important principle of the Naturalist doctrine was that of necessity; it was necessary to protect ambassadors because of the importance of their functions.  [11]  Grotius, a naturalist writer, arrived at the conclusion that immunity was based on Natural Law; he argued that the safety of diplomats was far more important than any advantage which could be derived from the punishment of his crimes. His security would be challenged if he were to be prosecuted by States other than the sending State.  [12]   By the 19th century, Natural law declined and there was a shift to positive law. One positivist theorist, Van Bynkershoek, pointed out that the law of Nations was based on the common consent between Nations through international customs or through treaties. He continued by expanding the concept of immunity and justifying it, whether there were questionable acts or not, by saying that an ambassador acted through wine and women, through favours and foul devices  [13]  . Certainly, the evolution of diplomatic relations did not stop here. Immunities and privileges developed partly as a result of sovereign immunity and the independence and equality of States.  [14]  Further, as there were more and more permanent missions as compared to ad hoc ones, Sovereigns accepted the importance of ambassadors to negotiate and collect information.  [15]  In 1815, it is found that Vienna was the first site of a Congress for diplomatic agents. Next, the first international attempt to codify the Diplomatic Law was in 1895 with the Draft Convention of the Institute of International Law.  [16]   In 1927, the League of Nations Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law made a report analysing existing customary law of diplomatic privileges and immunities. This aimed at providing a temporary instrument until a more comprehensive codification could be written.  [17]  Eventually, Diplomatic Law further progressed with the Havana Convention on Diplomatic Officers 1928. According to its preamble, diplomats should not claim immunities which were not fundamental in performing his official tasks. THEORIES WHICH SHAPED DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY With a further step towards modern immunity with the creation of resident or permanent embassies, three theories were developed and these moulded diplomatic law since the 16th century.  [18]  These theories are Exterritoriality, Personal Representation and Functional Necessity. Each played a prominent role during different periods in history. (a) PERSONAL REPRESENTATION The basis of this theory was that diplomats received immunity as if they were the foreign sovereign. This was out of respect and avoided any form of conflict as the sending State was pleased. In other words, a diplomats immunity arose because he was an extension of the ruler sending him. The representative was treated as though the sovereign of that country was conducting the negotiations, making alliances or refusing requests  [19]  . The great theorists of the 16th and 17th century like Grotius, Van Bynkershoek, Wicquefort, Montesquieu and Vattel supported the use of this theory  [20]  . In The Schooner Exchange v McFaddon  [21]  , the Court held that, by regarding the ambassador as the sovereigns representative, it ensured their stature. If they were not accorded exemptions, every sovereign would cast a shadow on his own dignity when sending an ambassador to a foreign State. (b) EXTERRITORIALITY This theory is based on the Roman law principle whereby a man took his own lands law with him when he went to another land  [22]  . The crux of this theory is that the offices, property and homes of diplomats and even their persons were to be treated, throughout their stay, as though they were on the territory of the sending State. Any crimes committed by the members of that embassy could not be lawfully prosecuted in the receiving State. This theory soon developed and extended to the staff and family of diplomats. Authors like Emmerich de Vattel and James Lorimer emphasised that an ambassadors house and person are not domiciled in the receiving State, but in the sending State  [23]  . In King v Guerchy  [24]  , an English Court did not prosecute a French ambassador for an attempt to assassinate another Frenchman. The Court held that an ambassador owes no subjection to the Courts of the country to which he is sent. He is supposed, by a fiction of law, to be still resident in his own country  [25]  . In Taylor v Best  [26]  , Jervis CJ declared that the basis of privilege is that the ambassador is assumed to be in his own country. The Attorney-General in Magdalena Steam Navigation Co v Martin  [27]  expressed similar opinions. (c) FUNCTIONAL NECESSITY Functional necessity aims not only at allowing the individual diplomat to function freely and effectively, but also ensuring the efficient functioning of the diplomatic process as a whole. This requires the fullest protection be given even if the diplomat goes beyond his function  [28]  . This is based on the idea that immunity is necessary and recognised for the efficient functioning of the diplomat. This theory gained impetus due to the expansion of permanent resident embassies. It is incorporated in the VCDR as the dominant theory in the preamble. Functional necessity limits immunities and privileges to those functions performed by the diplomat in his official capacity. When performing an official task, diplomats need to be able to move freely and not be obstructed by the receiving State. They must be able to observe and report with confidence without the fear of being reprimanded  [29]  . This immunity may be understood to mean that diplomats may break the law of the receiving State in order to fulfil their functions. Grotius stresses that an ambassador must be free from all coercion in order to fulfil his duties  [30]  . Vattel placed the greatest emphasis on the theory in order for ambassadors to accomplish the object of their appointment safely, freely, faithfully and successfully by receiving the necessary immunities  [31]  . In the 18th century, the Lord Chancellor in Buvot v. Barbuit  [32]  declared that diplomatic privileges stem from the necessity that nations need to interact with one another. Similarly, in Parkinson v Potter  [33]  , the Court observed that an extension of exemption from jurisdiction of the Courts was essential to the duties that the ambassador has to perform. THE VCDR  [34]   Further along the time-line, in 1961, an international treaty was born to codify the past practices: the VCDR. This is the main source of Diplomatic Law and which is embodied into a comprehensive and widely accepted international treaty which was signed by 179 parties. It was adopted on 18 April 1961 during the UN Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities held in Vienna. This Convention bears testament to the efforts of States to reach agreement for the common good. Its provisions marked progression of custom into settled law and resolved areas of contention where practices conflicted  [35]  . The Convention contains 53 articles that govern the behaviour of diplomats, 13 of which address the issue of immunity. Due to the comprehensive formulation of a wide range of aspects of diplomatic law, the VCDR met with a lot of success. Indeed most states were satisfied because of the presence reciprocity  [36]  which renders each state both a sending and a receiving state. It is to be noted that diplomatic immunity should not be confused with Consular immunity  [37]  , State immunity, UN immunity  [38]  and international organisations immunity  [39]  . Importantly, the VCDR focuses only on permanent envoys and does not deal with ad hoc envoys which are covered by another Convention  [40]  . This section will deal with working towards the VCDR (1.2.1). For a better understanding of the VCDR, a brief study on the provisions of the VCDR will follow (1.2.2). 1.2.1 WORKING TOWARDS THE VCDR Before 1961, Diplomatic Law was, to a large extent, customary and it was accompanied by some attempts to codify certain rules  [41]  . None of those attempts addressed the field in sufficient detail. In 1957, following the General Assembly Resolution 685, the ILC accepted to prepare a draft Convention on Diplomatic Relations. The drafters had the burdensome task of incorporating the concerns of all countries involved in the early 1960s and a history dating as far as the first civilised settlements. The ILC requested information and opinions from governments so that a worthy document could be drafted. This was necessary in order to eliminate diverging views and customs. While formulating the Convention, the drafters also considered the absolute immunity granted to diplomats since ancient times. In 1961, the Conference was organised to discuss the draft and this was attended by 81 States and several international organisations as observers. These States were able to reach consensus on many issues. The VCDR, based on a series of draft articles, was agreed upon. It solved dissensions concerning State practice, made available additional rules and agreed that customs would govern field which were not dealt with in the VCDR  [42]  . It is to be noted that although the VCDR successfully codified several practices, not everyone got what they wanted. For instance, the US argued unsuccessfully for retaining many diplomatic privileges while other States like Italy and Argentina wanted limited immunity. Colombia, Egypt, India and Norway amongst others proposed the prohibiting of diplomatic personnel from engaging in commercial activity. 1.2.2 PROVISIONS OF THE VCDR  [43]   The VCDR provides certain immunities and privileges to different levels of diplomatic officials, their staff and families. For example, diplomats benefit from inviolability of their person, immunity from the law of the receiving state and inviolability of their property. Furthermore, the missions premises and documents are also protected from violation. The VCDR also grants many fiscal privileges and limited customs exemptions. Next, the VCDR gives definitions of some typical functions of the diplomatic mission such as representing the sending State in another state  [44]  . The VCDR also lays importance on the duties and rights of the receiving State. Examples are the rights to disapprove a potential head of mission, to decide that a member of the diplomatic mission is persona non grata and to limit the size of the mission amongst others. Additionally, the host state must protect the premises of the mission as well as its communications. Furthermore, the receiving state has to provide adequate facilities so that the mission can function smoothly. It is noteworthy to stress that an accredited person is not exempt from the obligation to obey local law. In fact, he is under an express duty to do so. OTHER IMPORTANT SOURCES OF DIPLOMATIC LAW Apart from the VCDR, Diplomatic Immunity is regulated by other sources of law. Indeed, they deal with aspects which are not covered under the main Convention. As such, there are Optional Protocols (1.3.1), a Convention covering the prevention and the punishment of internationally protected persons (1.3.2) and Municipal Law which is very important for States which are not directly influenced by International Law (1.3.3). 1.3.1 OPTIONAL PROTOCOLS During the UN Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities held in Vienna, 2 Optional Protocols were also adopted. Countries may ratify the main treaty, that is, the VCDR, without necessarily ratifying these optional agreements. These are the Protocol: Concerning Acquisition of Nationality which mainly dictates that the Head of the mission, the staff of the Mission and their families shall not acquire the nationality of the receiving country. Concerning Compulsory Settlement of Dispute. In brief, disputes arising from the interpretation of the VCDR may be brought before the ICJ. As such, article 1 of that Protocol states that: Disputes arising out of the interpretation of the Convention shall lie within the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice and may accordingly be brought before the Court. 1.3.2 THE  UN CONVENTION ON THE PREVENTION AND PUNISHMENT OF CRIMES AGAINST INTERNATIONALLY PROTECTED PERSONS, INCLUDING DIPLOMATIC AGENTS 1973 (CPPCPP) The CPPCPP provides that States parties must consider attacks upon diplomats as crimes in internal law and obliges them to extradite or prosecute offenders. Also, in exceptional cases, a diplomat may be arrested or detained on the basis of self-defence or in the interests of protecting  human life in the receiving State. A series of kidnappings of senior diplomats occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The object of the kidnappings was always to extract a particular demand from a government. The threat of the execution of a diplomat and the failure to fulfil the demand leads to the refusing government being held responsible for his death. As a consequence of the high incidence of political acts of violence directed against diplomats and other officials, the General Assembly of the UN adopted the CPPCPP. The foreseen offences are primarily murder, kidnapping, attacks upon the person, violent attacks upon official and private premises, and any threats or attempts to commit any of the above offences.  [45]   Nations ratifying the Prevention and Punishment Convention make these crimes punishable with appropriate penalties, which take into account the gravity of the offence and either extradite offenders or apply the domestic law. Where there is a threat to the safety of a diplomat, such as a mob attack or kidnapping, the receiving State should provide special protection, like an armed guard or bodyguards. 1.3.3 MUNICIPAL LAW Many states are not bound by international law. Indeed, there are rules that treaties made do not have direct effect in national law. As such, it is necessary that those provisions of the Conventions be transformed into municipal law. There are, therefore, a number of Acts of parliament which mirror the VCDR and which also complement it or substitute some of its provisions. In the UK, these include the Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987, providing that the consent of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs is required before land can become diplomatic or consular premises and giving him certain powers in respect of disused premises and the Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 which reflects the provisions of the VCDR. In the Republic of South Africa, there is the Diplomatic Privileges Act  [46]  which repealed the Diplomatic Immunities Act of 1932 and the Diplomatic Immunities Amendment Act of 1934. In the Republic of Mauritius, the Constitution is the supreme law of the land  [47]  and International Law has no effects without ratification. As such, laws must be passed at parliamentary level, for example, the Consular Relations Act  [48]  reflecting the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 and the Diplomatic Relations Act  [49]  which reflects the VCDR. Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚  Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ 

Cats are Better Pets than Dogs :: Cat Feline Pet

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent housepets. In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch! In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed. Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Cats are Better Pets than Dogs :: Cat Feline Pet "A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent housepets. In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch! In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed. Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear.